Parasitism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 29 Words: 8650 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Biology Essay Type Descriptive essay Did you like this example? lChapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Parasitism" essay for you Create order The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ikan belacak, ikan tembakul or ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by Ondrakov et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphallodes clomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Kryer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23 to 25 and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water() Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode 28 0 1 4 0 0 0 Monogenea 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 Nematode 1 4 0 25 0 0 2 Unidentified cysts 0 8 0 390 1 2 0 3.4 Compound Parasite Community Table 8 listed 402 unidentified parasite cysts recorded from the entire study. There were 146 digeneans found from the oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) and thirty two nematodes, mostly in encysted form. Monogenean was found in a small quantity from the oxdercine gobies. There were totally 8 monogeneans detected from the specimens. Table 9 showed a variation in prevalence, intensity and abundance of gobiid parasites. Monogenean had a lower prevalence which is around 2.36%. This suggests that mudskippers are not the preferred hosts of monogeneans. Digeneans have 15.75% prevalence in this study. The prevalence of unidentified parasites cysts was noted as 17.3%. The prevalence results obtained suggest that the level of parasitic infection is different among oxudercine gobies on Selangor coast (see Table 9). A distinct mudskipper species hardly ever found with parasitic infection under the natural condition. The intensity of unidentified parasite cysts and digeneans were considerably higher than the other parasites. Both of them were recorded respectively as 18.3 and 7.3 intensity. The monogeneans and cestodes achieved a similar intensity at around 2.7. The low intensity indicates that the number of parasite found from a distinct host is relatively small. The compound parasite attained a low abundance in the mudskippers, in the range of less than 0.2. Table 8: The Quantity Parasites Present in the Mudskipper from Study Sites Parasite species Quantity Digenea 146 Monogenea 8 Nematode 32 Cestode 33 Unidentified parasite cysts 402 Table 9: The Total, Prevalence, Intensity and Abundance of Compound Parasite Community in Mudskippers Parasite Species Total Prevalence (100%) Intensity Abundance Monogenea 8 2.362 2.667 0.021 Digenea 146 15.748 7.300 0.057 Cestode 33 7.874 2.750 0.022 Nematode 32 3.150 8.000 0.063 Unidentified Parasite cysts 402 17.323 18.273 0.144 2 3.5 Statistical Analysis 3.5.1 Distribution Patterns and Aggregation of parasites The distribution pattern of parasite can be estimated using Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and scheming the relationship between the mean (X) and the variance (S2). The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) predicts the aggregation of parasites is neither random, uniform nor clumped (see Table 10 11). The result of Coefficient of Dispersion (S2 X) showed that the distribution of the parasites in a study site was clumped (see Table 10). The phenomenon may be affected by environmental factors. Table 11 showed that the parasite distribution was more clumped than expected in the oxudercine gobies. The parasites usually are considered to be host specific. They need certain host to complete their life cycle. The host provides them with a suitable environment and nutrition. Table 10 : Distribution of Infected mudskippers in Study Sites Number of infected fish Number of study sites Mean, X 56 7 8.0 Variance, S2 632 7-1=6 105.3333 C.D 13.1667 Table 11 : Distribution of Parasites in Oxudercine Gobies (mudskippers) Number of parasites Number of fish species Mean, X 621 7 88.7143 Variance, S2 123209.4 7-1=6 20534.9 C.D 231.4723 3.5.2 ANOVA Test Correlation analysis was conducted using a S-PLUS statistical method (S-Plus 6.2 Academic Site Edition). The analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) was used to determine samples differences (refer to Appendix A4). Correlation analysis determined the linear relationship among the measured responses. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on each measured factors indicate that the significance between the occurrences of parasite with a distinct host species (oxudercine gobies) in a study area. Hypotheses: : The occurrence of certain parasite is independent with host species in a studied site HA : The occurrence of certain parasite is dependent with host species in a studied site 3.5.2.1 ANOVA testing for 3 measured factors on parasites of the oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) ANOVA test was done using 3 factors which are the host species, the sex of host, and the study site. This test may determine how the factors interact with gobiid parasites along the Selangor coast. Table 12 showed that the host species and environmental factors (macrohabitat) significantly affect the occurrence of parasite in the mudskippers. The sex of host (female or male) may or may not affect the occurrence of parasites on mudskippers. Table 12: The three main factors affecting the occurrences of parasites on mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host species 6 4.75 0.79 4.69 0.00027 (S) Host Sex 1 0.57 0.57 3.38 0.06843 (S/NS) Study Site 6 5.73 0.96 5.65 0.00004 (S) Residuals 113 19.13 0.17 * Total parasites, X = Log(X+1) 3.5.2.2 ANOVA testing for 3 measured factors on the gill parasites and gut parasites ANOVA test was used to determine the relationship among the host, the sex of host and the study site with reference to the gill parasites (see Table 13) and gut parasites (see Table 15). The four genera of fish specimens were Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmus, Pseudapocryptes and Periophthalmodon. i) Gill Parasites Table 13 showed a significant effect between the host genera and the occurrences of parasites. The parasites prefer to serve certain mudskipper species as their host. The study site with a probability value of 0.06 indicates that there were some interactions between the environment of study site (macrohabitat) and the parasites on the gill of mudskippers (see Table 13). There were 3 groups of parasites found from the gills. They were digenean, monogenean and unidentified parasite cysts. Digeneans and monogeneans interact significantly with the host and environment (see Table 14). Both parasites were suggested to have host specificity. Table 13: The Three Main Factors Affecting Gill Parasites on Mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host genera 3 1.668436 0.5561453 7.812235 0.0000854 (S) Study Site 6 0.887823 0.1479705 2.078559 0.0609336 (S/NS) Host Sex 1 0.000172 0.0001717 0.002412 0.9609126 (NS) Residuals 116 8.257925 0.0711890 * Total parasites, X = Log(X+1) Table 14: Result of ANOVA Test for Gill Parasite against Host Species, Host Sex and Study Site. (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 P value Parasites Host species Host Sex Study Site Digenea 0.003838 (S) 0.758516 (NS) 0.004617 (S) Monogenean 0.000000 (S) 1.000000(NS) 0.000000 (S) Unidentified Parasite cysts 0.238282 (NS) 0.981684 (NS) 0.812846 (NS) ii) Gut Parasites The existences of a distinct gut parasite maybe affected by the host species and the environmental factors (see Table 15). The host genera and the environment of the macrohabitat have a significant effect (in the range of P0.05) on the existence of the gut parasites. There were four types of parasites were found from the gut of the mudskippers. They were digenean, cestode, nematode and unidentified parasite cysts. Table 16 showed that the host fish species and environment of the macrohabitat could affect the quantity of digeneans. Digenean was specific to host and environment of macrohabitat. The other gut parasites showed significant interaction with host species. Table 15: The Three Main Factors Affecting Gut Parasites on Mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host genera 3 1209.362 403.1208 6.136085 0.0006587(S) Locality 6 1028.375 171.3958 2.608893 0.0208333 (S) Sex 1 108.130 108.1295 1.645889 0.2020990 (NS) Residuals 115 7555.125 65.6967 Table 16: Result of ANOVA Test for Gut Parasite against Host Species, Host Sex and Study Site (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 P value Parasites Host species Sex Locality Digenea 0.000000 (S) 0.000488 (S) 0.0000000 (S) Cestode 0.028748 (S) 0.134147 (NS) 0.290563 (NS) Nematode 0.000000 (S) 0.406793 (NS) 0.123248 (NS) Unidentified Parasite cysts 0.012161 (S) 0.965951 (NS) 0.506758 (NS) 3.5.3 Chi Square Test Hypotheses: : The parasites do not distribute by preferred part of a specific host species HA : The parasites distribute by preferred part of a specific host species Chi square statistics is used to test how a sample from a population follows a specified distribution. The Chi square statistics result show that a significant effect at the probability (P) value is less than 0.05. The host species and environmental factors (microhabitat and macrohabitat) independently played an important role in affecting the number and type of parasites (see Table 17). Parasites distribution was clumped among the mudskippers. They were host specific and have their own preference to inhabit the particular part of the mudskippers. Hypothesis Tested X statistic P- value Host species X Parasite compound community 1932.09 0.00 (S) Host Species X Location of parasite on fish (Gill and Gut) 110.5 0.00 (S) Table 17: Result of the X statistic on the association analysis between host species and parasite compound community; the host species and infection site of parasites. * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Chapter 4 General Discussions 4.0 Introduction The compound parasite community which was identified from different species of mudskippers consist of digenea, monogenea, cestode, nematode and unknown parasite cysts (see Table 3). Seven species of mudskippers [Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus] were collected along Selangor coast. The environmental factors may affect the density and distribution of the parasite (Cheng, 1986) based on the host species. 4.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) 4.1.1 Parasite compound community Varieties of parasites serve the fish as host in nature (see Chapter 1). Most parasites have special attachment and they depend on host metabolically (see section 1.2). Parasites suck foods and nutrients from host and set off their new stage of life cycle in the host. Besides, they able to move frequently to deal with the typical physiologic changes of the hosts inner body (see section 1.2). The parasite species differs among mudskippers in a same studied region (Marcogliese, 2002). Digenean, monogenean, cestode, nematode and unidentified parasite cysts were found internally from oxudercine gobies in the present study (see Table 3). The previous study noted that the parasitic protozoa, copepod, bacterial flora and larval helminth parasite infected different species of the mudskipper (Clayton, 1993; Table 18). Digeneans were more widely found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos than in Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Periophthalmus chrysospilos maybe served as main host by digeneans (see section 3.2). The parasites have specific attachment organs enabling them to hold onto the hosts for nourishment and transport (see section 1.2). Digeneans cysts could be found in the gills of the fish. Moreover, the gills chamber of the gobiid fishes is important macrohabitat for digeneans to complete their life cycle (see Zander, 2004; c.f section 3.1). The adult of digeneans (migrate from first intermediate host) hide within the abdominal cavity of the gobiid fishes and the attachment of these parasites may induce the mortality of their host (Pampoulie et al., 1999). Monogenean (Gyrodactylus sp.) has a direct life cycle in the fish (Cheng, 1986). Monogeneans are gill-inhabiting parasites (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). This species parasite also can be found on the fins, in the alimentary tract or on other parts of fish (Lim, 1979). The gills are important to monogenean. This parasite feeds on blood which is accessible in the gills (Lim, 1987). Monogenean seems to be host specific since only Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus harboured these parasites in the study area (see Table 4). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus have longer gill filaments rather than other mudskipper specimens. The function of the gills almost similar among fishes, whereas the morphology of the gills differs based on fish species (Lim, 1979). Monogenean has a low parasitic infection among the mudskipper species along the Selangor coast (see section 3.4). A huge quantity of unidentified parasite cysts could be found from Boleophthalmus boddarti (see section 3.2; Table 5). Boleophthalmus boddarti may be the main host for the unidentified parasite cysts if it is compared with Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Periophthalmus novemradiatus was probably served as occasional host by these unknown cysts because of its lower infection rate (see. Zander Reimer, 2002). The parasite cysts found in oxudercine gobies probably were considered as the myxosporid (in the gills) or the cysts of cestode or nematode (in the gut) (see Chapter 3). These cysts are apparently not digested by the host (Zander Reimer, 2002). No current study shows that theses parasites could obviously have impact on the biology of the mudskippers. Cestode and nematode could be found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri (see Table 2; Table 3). Most were found in encysted form from the gut dermis of the mudskippers. Instead, the adult cestode has attachment hooks (see section 1.2), and the gut (see Table 3) is probably acted as a preferred site by them. Their attachment on the gut dermis of the host may be related to the nourishment that the gut provides (Cheng, 1986). The unidentified parasite cysts, digenea, nematode and cestode were recognised as gut parasites (see Table 3). The oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) may serve as their intermediate host. The 5 groups of parasites showed different prevalence, intensity and abundance (see. Section 3.4). The gobiid fishes have a low prevelance, intensity and abundance of parasite (Camp et al., 1999). The low abundance indicates that such a parasite could not obviously bring the host to death (Pampoulie et al., 1999). Parasite distribution is more clumped than expected due to the host species and the environmental effects (see section 3.5.1). They do not follow a specified distribution in a macrohabitat (see section 3.5.3). Most parasites attach on hosts by using their distinctive adhesive organs (see section 1.2). Different species of parasites may metabolically depend on a host at different levels (Cheng, 1986). They may bring bad effects or damages to the host (Zander, 1998). Further experimental study on the effect of parasites on mudskippers is needed. 4.1.2 Host species and their occurrences Mudskippers are euryhaline organisms and they typically inhabit in mudflat and mangrove areas (Clayton, 1993). According to a previous study (from year of 1984 to 2004), 17 species of mudskippers which distribute along the Selangor coast were collected for taxonomic research. In this present study, 7 mudskipper species were caught and examined for parasites (see Appendix A5). A total of 127 mudskippers were collected at random, along the Selangor coast (Table 2). The length (L) of specimens principally ranged between 3.90 and 16.00 centimetres. The weight (W) was noted to be from 0.40 to 108.10 gram. It is suggested that the specimens consist of the mudskippers from different generation stages. Mudskippers are restricted to different environments (Khaironizam Norma-Rashid, 2004). Boleophthlmus, Pseudapocryptes and Scartelaos are more recognised as an aquatic species than Periophthalmus and Periophthalmodon (Clayton, 1993). Periophthalmus novemradiatus is a vast parasitic-infected species with various parasites being found from it. These species of mudskippers are commonly found along the straits of Malaysia (see Appendix A1). Periphthalmus modetus is rarely found on Selangor coast (see Appendix A1). This species is often found in East Pacific region (see Appendix A1). The food content of fish may provide information on the life cycle of the parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996). Unexpectedly, the diet of the mudskipper specimens is almost similar among each others. In this case, it is not an important clue to determine the parasitic infection on mudskippers. The mudskippers commonly take fish plankton, seaweeds, crustaceans and copepods as foods, while some of them prefer to eat seashells or insects (see Table 2). Apart from that, the preferences of each mudskipper species differs based on their own behaviour and food accessibility in a region. Periophthalmodon sp are recognised as carnivorous while Boleophthalmus sp is categorised as an herbivore (Clayton, 1993). The abundance or richness of a mudskipper species in an area or habitat is determined by preferences of a mudskipper on the substrate circumstance or the presence of muddy substratum and accessibility of food supply (Khaironizam Norma-Rashid, Y., 2005). 4.2 Factors affecting species distribution of parasites The environmental factors may restrict the intensity and distribution of parasites on a host (Zander, 2002). The quantity of parasite is possibly influenced significantly by pH and the salinity of water from different study areas (refer to section 3.5.2). The existence of a distinct parasite is probably affected by the environment of macrohabitat (ecosystem) and microhabitat (hosts inner condition) (Pampoulie et al., 2004). Parasites are able to inhabit in extreme environments (Cheng, 1986). The host species obviously restrict the occurrence and distribution of certain parasites in a particular area (see Chapter 3). Moreover, the occurrences of parasites also depend on the tolerance of their host as well as in brackish water (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean is host specific (see section 3.1). This parasite was only found from site Carey Island 1 which was recorded to have 11 and 7.44 pH of water. It has a low abundance along the Selangor coast (see Table 9). Besides this, cestode, nematode and digenea are less specialised to oxudercine gobies and the environment in a study site (see section 3.1-3.3). These parasites are more generalist to pH and salinity of water because they are widespread in a wide range of pH (see table 7). They develop their life cycle based on their own optimum condition (Cheng, 1986) and the occurrences of their distinct host (Zander Reimer, 2002). In this case, the occurrences and abundance of parasites are determined by environmental changes. The parasites may tolerate into different characteristics, such as the type of water or environment. The pressure of the environment such as the salinity and pH of water would affect the intensity and abundance of parasites (Zander Reimer, 2002). The parasites will clump in a favourable environment. Thus, the occurrences of parasite is determined by the adaptation of the parasite as well as its host in a ecological system (Zander Reimer, 2002; section 3.5.2) The preference of a parasite towards the different species of hosts (see Table 9) differs with each other, based on the study areas. The 7 study areas have ecological differences. Site Carey Island 1 is situated near an oil palm estate and estuarine area where the water level is always constant. Site Carey Island 2 and site Carey Island 3 are in a river bank area. The fishes from Jeram were collected from mud flat or mud bank. Sementa is located in the mixed forest zone of mangrove area. Whereas the field area in Morib where fish collection was carried out is a vast sand mud beach site. The area is situated nearby the mangrove forest. 4.3 Limitations It was not easy to obtain a complete mudskippers collection from Selangor coastal area for parasitological study in such a limited time. The best time to catch the mudskipper as during spring tide. Not all the mudskipper species from Selangor coastal area were included into the statistical analysis. The samples sizes were not in a sufficient number for data analysis because the specimens were collected randomly from different studied areas. Thus accuracy of the data analysis maybe affected. 4.4 Suggestions for further study It is important to have a sufficient number of mudskippers to observe, so as to ensure a good study. Investigations should be carried out throughout the whole coastal area in Malaysia. The research areas may include the area along the West and East Strait of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah or Sarawak. Diversity of oxudercine gobies and parasite species of mudskippers could be discussed between Strait of Peninsular Malaysia or East and West Malaysia. A complete study should be formed for different species of oxudercine gobies. Gobies play an important role as a transmitter of a parasite. Parasites may capitalize within the food webs in an ecosystem. Dietary studies may give information about the life history of gobiid parasite. A histological work could be carried out to study the damage of the host by the parasite. Different types of parasites have different preferences on the host species and the attaching site. The effect on the host due to the attachment of parasites as well as certain species of parasites could be investigated. Species identification of parasites should be done. This will be useful for parasite taxonomy work (parasites were stained for morphological study), histological work and further study of gobiid parasites. This project already sets up a good baseline data for gobiid parasites. Various literatures and information sources on gobiid parasites have been cited, and a general introduction about oxudercine gobies and their distribution has been done. A database about parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) should be set up to share this information with other people. . Table 18: Parasite Record of Previous Study and Present Study Based on Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskipers). Host Species Parasite Record Previous Study Present Study Boleophthalmus boddarti Intestinal flagellate, agamofilial and Unidentified parasite cysts acanthocephalid cysts, cestode Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus Parasitic copepod Monogenea Periophthalmus novemradiatus Cannot be found Digenea, cestode, Nematode, Unidentified parasites cysts Periophthalmus chrysospilos Cannot be found Digenea, cestode Periophthalmus modestus Bacterial flora Cannot be found Periophthalmodon schlosseri Larval ascarid nematode, cestode, Nematode, Cestode agamofilial and acanthocephalid cysts, acanthocephalan species, parasitic Copepod Scartelaos histophorus Parasitic protozoan, myxosporidian Cannot be found sporozoan, heterophyid fluke References Abu Khair Mohammad Mohsin Mohd. Azmi Ambak. (1996). Marine Fishes And Fisheries of Malaysia And Neighbouring Countries. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press. Serdang, Malaysia. Agbayani,Eli. Mudskippers.(1999) www.fishbase.org Viewed August, 2005 Albert, O. 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Interscience Publishing, Inc. Vol 2. Zander, C.D. (1998). Colonization and Seasonality of Goby (Gobiidae, Teleostei) Parasites from Southwestern Baltic Sea. Parasitol Res. 84:459-466. Zander, C.D. (1998). Ecology of Host Parasite Relationship in the Baltic Sea. Naturwissenschaften. Vol 85:426-436. Zander, C.Dieter. (2004). Four-year Monitoring of Parasite Communities in Gobiid Fishes of the South-Western Baltic II. Infracommunity. Parasitology Research. Springer-Verlag GmbH. Volume 93, Number 1. Pages:17 29 Zander, C.D., Kocoglu, O., Skroblies, M., Strohbach, U.(2002). Parasite Populations and Communities from the Shallow Littoral of the Orther Bight (Fehmarn, SW Baltic Sea). Parasitol Res. 88:734-744. Zander, C.D., Strohbach, U., Groenewold. S.(1993).The Importance of gobies (Gobiidae, Teleostei) as Hosts and Transmitters of Parasites in the SW Baltic. Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen. 47:81-111.

a dolls house - 1153 Words

A Doll’s House South University Ibsen’s a doll house centers around a time where men worked and women were the care givers of the home. In a Doll’s House there were some major points made that eventually led up to that one defining moment. The defining moment for me was when Nora decided that she no longer wants to live the lifestyle of being the â€Å"doll†. It starts with Torvalds reading the letter about her borrowing the money and Nora’s secret is finally exposed. Nora and Torvald to outsiders, seem to have the perfect life. They seem like a happily married couple with no worries in the world. But little do they know a lot goes on behind closed doors in their home. There are serious financial issues†¦show more content†¦She then says â€Å"In all these eight years--longer than that--from the very beginning of our acquaintance, we have never exchanged a word on any serious subject†( Ibsen, 2011, Act III) . Most of their relationship centered on a lot of playfulness so it was really sad that it took a lie for them to finally act like a married couple. Throughout the play I often thought of Nora and Torvald as father and daughter because they gave me that impression and Nora even says â€Å"And you have always been so kind to me. But our home has been nothing but a playroom. I have been your doll wife, just as at home I was Papa s doll child; and here the children have been my dolls. I thought it was great fun when you played with me, just as they thought it great fun when I played with them. That is what our marriage has been, Torvald† (Ibsen, 2011, Act III) .If I was an outsider looking in I would think that. Granted, there was love in the relationship but then you have to think about what married couples actually do. When Nora decided to finally leave Torvald it was a shocker for me, but when she left her children behind I felt as if she was very selfish on her part. I understand leaving your husband because you are not happy in your relationship but to leave your kids did not sit well with me. I often wondered what made Nora leave her children behind. Was she just now trying to live her life after being in an unhappy home forShow MoreRelatedA Doll HOuse941 Words   |  4 PagesIn the play A Doll House, there are many references pertaining how a woman was expected to behave and how men were expected to behave in the time that this play was written. Nora’s character first appears to be very â€Å"female†. For an example, she doesn’t have a real job, she spends money carelessly, and she say and do things to make her appear very dependent on Torvald. On the other end Torvald her husband, makes the money for the family and he appears to be the nice one in the house. Role playingRead MoreDoll House799 Words   |  4 PagesIn A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, a woman named Nora is facing a life altering situation that stands to both ruin her social and private life. In dealing with the potential outcomes of the scenario, Nora comes to find that she has been living a convenient mistruth. Nora’s greatest and most damaging lies are lies she tells to herself. As is seen numerous times throughout the play, Nora hides, withholds, and distorts the truth in order to please everyone around her, including herself. Nora is presentedRead MoreA Doll s House : Dolls2775 Words   |  12 Pages A Doll’s House: Dolls in Real Life Introduction Today, the accepted roles of both women and men judged by society’s expectations is an extremely controversial topic. Feminism is a battle that many women are fighting, because even though today’s women can be and accomplish almost anything, men often play the more superior role in many relationships. The role of women has been viewed differently throughout different points in history and in different areas. However, many people don t realize thatRead MoreA Doll s House : Dolls2775 Words   |  12 Pages A Doll’s House: Dolls in Real Life Introduction Today, the accepted roles of both women and men judged by society’s expectations is an extremely controversial topic. Feminism is a battle that many women are fighting, because even though today’s women can be and accomplish almost anything, men often play the more superior role in many relationships. The role of women has been viewed differently throughout different points in history and in different areas. However, many people don t realizeRead MoreAnalysis Of A Doll House 846 Words   |  4 PagesDoll house Nora’s marriage has been a sham ever since the start. By the standard of modern day, she has legitimate ground to leave her husband Torvald. Because Torvald only cares about his image, he treats Nora as an object rather than a wife, Nora has never been taken seriously by her husband, and Torvald only loves her for her appearance. Torvalds image is of great importance to him considering now he is a bank manager, and he will not allow anything standing in his way to ruin this imageRead MoreSymbolism In A Doll House1039 Words   |  5 PagesIf you read Henrik Ibsen’s â€Å"A Doll House† from a literary perspective, you will see a story about this â€Å"perfect† family, but if you just dig a little deeper you will see there is a whole lot more to this play than the eye first sees. You soon find out that this perfect family is not so perfect after all. From a symbolic perspective â€Å"A Doll House† is about marriage, respect, feminism, and how Tor vald’s family is like a doll house. Nora’s actions are very shocking to the general public that this bookRead MoreA Dolls House Essay790 Words   |  4 PagesIt has been said that, some people think that it’s holding on that makes one strong; sometimes it’s letting go. In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, Nora’s departure becomes the controversial topic of debate for many readers; was Nora Helmer justified in leaving her husband and kids or not? It is argued that both parents are needed for a child to succeed in life and that separation is an act of cowardness. However, several readers also debate that Nora was justified in leaving Torvald and her kids.Read MoreSymbolism in A Doll House1501 Words   |  7 Pages456 The Use of Symbolism in A Doll House Author Margaret Trudeau once said, â€Å"I can’t be a rose in any man’s lapel† (â€Å"I Can’t Be†). This quote expresses exactly what was going through many women’s minds during the 1800’s in Norway. Women had let their husbands control their lives for ages before the 1800’s. Soon, they could no longer stand being the rose in their husbands’ lapel. The women of Norway longed for freedom and began to rebel. Henrik Ibsen’s play, A Doll House, displays what women were goingRead MoreTrifles And A Doll House969 Words   |  4 Pageshundreds were not thought of as important as a man. The role of the woman was to stay home and perform household duties such as, caring for the children and the home. The role of the man was to work and speak for the family. The dramas Trifles and A Doll House, show how two women will commit a crime at all cost and somehow contrast with each other. Trifle is a word which is used to describe something with little importance or value. According to Suzy Clarkson Holstein, â€Å"SUSAN CLASPELL’S ‘TRIFLES’ isRead MoreA Doll House 3800 Words   |  4 Pagescharacter, Torvald, in the play A Doll House, by Henrik Ibsen could be viewed as a morally ambiguous character. He displays the character traits of a morally ambiguous person. Torvald’s personal consumption of appearances shows how he treats his wife and home and personal pride. Torvald’s wife Nora is the center of several of the traits that classify him as a morally ambiguous character. Nora is more like a possession to Torvald than a soul mate or wife. She is like a doll to him, something that he

Rational Natural and Open Systems Perspectives †Assignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Rational Natural and Open Systems Perspectives. Answer: Introduction: Caf Paradiso is a caf, which is situated at a very convenient place, which will, is a very good for starting a caf. Brendan and Margaret Elliot want to start a new business. This caf is located at a Victoria Garden shopping centre which is has a great number of passing shoppers. As there are very small number of caf available near this location so this is going to be a great opportunity for them to start a business. They are well experienced with the caf business, as they have successfully operated a number of cafes before, so they are not new to the business and know the details of the business. The start of this new caf will increase their market share from 35%, which they hold previously to 40% within a year time (Altinay, Paraskevas and Jang, 2015). When one is running a business, it is easy to be bogged down in day-to-day problems and forget the bigger picture. However, successful businesses invest time to create and manage budgets, prepare and review business plans and regularly monitor finance and performance. Structured planning can make all the difference to the growth of your business. It will enable you to concentrate resources on improving profits, reducing costs and increasing returns on investment. In fact, even without a formal process, many businesses carry out the majority of the activities associated with business planning, such as thinking about growth areas, competitors, cash flow and profit. Converting this into a cohesive process to manage your business' development does not have to be difficult or time-consuming. The most important thing is that plans are made; they are dynamic and are communicated to everyone involved. Benefits from the Budgeting Plan There are a number of benefits of drawing up a business budget, including being better able to: To manage your money effectively To allocate appropriate resources to projects To monitor performance To meet the objectives To improve the decision-making To identify problems before they occurand such as the need to raise finance or cash flow difficulties To plan for the future To increase staff motivation Staff Re-organization Brandon has knowledge in the past of working as a chef and well experienced in the field. He will work actively in the caf and will contribute to the fullest. Margaret Elliot has a degree in the hospitality and has experience in that field. Both of them will contribute in the business and apart from that, they have agreed to retain two staff members who used to work in this caf previously so that they could maintain relationship with the old customers. Other than, this they have planned to hire four new staff amongst them two will work on part time basis and two will work permanently (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). As the caf is under a transition phase, it is very important to retain the old customers. The old staff members will play a key role in doing the work. The members have to understand the objective of the business and act accordingly. The objective of the company is to provide high quality coffee and other meals. The quality of service should be the highest priority for the caf and it emphasizes on the satisfaction of the customers (Berthelsen et al, 2014). The staff members should be very service oriented and they should maintain the service quality of the caf. The members should provide the best service quality possible. They should try to analyze the need and want of the customers very accurately and render service adequately. They should be given proper training and be explained with the objective of the company in detail so that they could align their service accordingly (Blay-Palmer and Knezevic, 2015.). As the caf is going through a transition phase, it is a very important time for the business. During this time, the owners and most of the staff members are changing while retaining only two of the old staff. During this time, the caf will try to retain its old customer, whereas making new customers. The customers can only be retained through quality product and quality services. Therefore, the staff members should act accordingly. The aim of the business should always be kept in mind and the actions are to be conducted accordingl y (Buttigieg et al, 2016). Every member should be equally divided with particular task and it should be made accountable for that particular task. In addition, regular assessment should be carried out about the performance of their work (Chia and Round, 2015). Impact of marketing initiatives and campaign The company wants to successful transition of the business from the previous owner to the current owner and wants to retain their old customer base. They at increasing their market share in the industry, which previously was 35% to 40% so that they have a better grip in the industry. They also wants to generate a before tax margin of 20 % (Cokins, 2017). The company in order to achieve their objective is taking some marketing measures such as they have retained two of the key staff members for the previously running business of that caf as they have a relation with the customers, which will help the business to retain the old customers. Apart from that, they also plan to change or upgrade the signage of the caf, which will help to attract the customers. Signage plays a very important role in attracting customers and they try to grab attention of the customers thereby increase the number of visiting customers. The company has thought not to increase the cost and to function on the previous price, which will help to grab the customers. As the customers are price oriented so this strategy will work to increase the base of the customers. However, there will be a up gradation will be done regarding the caf but there will be no increase in the price of the items. This can only be done on controlling the cost. If the cost is controlled this will give them an advantage to compete on the price (Dai et al , 2014). Apart from these common strategies, the company is planning to take some more aggressive strategies in order to make some marketing plans to give some advantage to the business. The aggressive marketing strategies will help to fetch business and will create a platform for the company, which will help to compete with its competitors. These will strengthen its position in the market and people will be more aware about the company. Such a marketing strategy will create a advantageous positioning for the company. Aggressive strategy may include advertisement on digital and print media and other initiatives such as discounts and offers (Dewe,2016). The staff of the restaurant is to be divided into two shifts and the workforce should be divided equally according to their skills. Shift 1 - Comprising of 6 members that include 2 waiters, 1 cooks, 1 Receptionist and 1 Manager, 1 cleaning staff (Shift timing Morning 10 am 4 pm) Shift 2 - Comprising of 6 members that include 3 waiters, 1 cooks, 1 Receptionist and 1 cleaning staff (4 pm 10 pm) The table, sheets, and the room should be cleaned every day so that they look clean and tidy. The cleaning staff should clean the toilet twice every day. The receptionist should see that there is change in the billing counter. The kitchen staff should see that the kitchen stays clean and all the materials are available or not. If there is a shortage of a particular material then it is to be made known to the manager (Elsawah et al, 2015). The manager is responsible for the smooth functioning of the restaurant. It is the duty of the manager to solve any problem that may arise and to see that each member carries out his or her respective duties properly. Waiter should see that the customer are provided with best service possible as they play a great role as getting into direct contact with the customer. They need to provide swift services in the best possible way. All the members should come one hour early to get the briefing of the day. The restaurant wants to increase their sale by 10% so the waiter should try to sell the products. The marketing strategy should be simple and they should focus on the target customers. To attract the customers the caf should have an attractive signage and they should offer attractive discounts and offers so that it can pull customers (Gal, Stewart and Hanne, 2013). Up gradation of facilities The facilities are to be upgraded in comparison to the modern day caf so that it can compete with its competitors. Better services are to be provided with better ambience. The caf should be well decorated with comfortable seats and good lighting which soothing to the eyes. There should be only one shift that is maintained the staff members should work from 10 am in the morning and until 10 pm in the right. The briefings for all the members are to be done by the manager every day. The cleaning staff will see that everything including kitchen is clean. Proper cleaning is to be done. It is the duty of the manager to see that all the duties are to be performed by the members. If any problem arises by their respective person who is responsible for that particular situation, in that case the particular person should take care of that situation. The kitchen staff should do the procurement for any kind of kitchen stock or raw materials. The waiter should see that the ambience should be maintained properly. Manager will not be responsible arising and any such problem is to be solved by the respectable person in relation to that particular work (Zurich, 2017). The restaurant wants to establish itself as the best Chinese restaurant in the town as they have good chief for Chinese food. So more focus should be given on it The marketing strategy should be aggressive in nature and they should give advertisement on local digital and print media so that more number of customers is attracted towards the caf. This will help to develop a customer base for the business and shall also help to stabilize the business after the change that is going to take place. The caf should focus on the up gradation of the quality, they should try to improve the quality of their food products and beverages, so that it helps to compete with others caf. There should be some changes made in the work practices, the customers should be given high priority and they should be provided with the highest quality of services possible so that they stay satisfied. In this way, it will help the caf to retain its customers and thereby help to increase its business (Haimes, 2015). Waste of time To create a budget is very important as it gives us an idea about what are the total expenses that can be incurred. The budget may not exactly match with the reality but they give us a fair idea what amount of expenses will be faced by us. The budget is created by taking the previous year expenses keeping in mind. The expense that is incurred previous financial year gives us a fair idea about how much budget is to be calculated this year (HakemZadeh et al, 2016). In order to modify a budget there are many factors that are needed to be considered. We need to consult the budget of the previous year and accordingly formulate the budget. It is hard to understand the factors that will play a role in the budget and what changes are to be made from the budget of the previous year (Kline, 2015). Budgeting is a very sensitive thing, it is a calculated assumption, so we cannot be one hundred percent sure about the budget but we need to go as close as possible. Every year the amount of expenses, changes and accordingly the changes are to be made in the budget. What are the factors that will change is hard to understand and predict. Through budgeting, we try to go as near as possible to the exact expenses (Norton and Schofield, 2017). The Funds that is being allocated for a particular set of things are to be allotted accordingly keeping it as same as possible. If there is, an extreme need to change the amount that is allotted in the budget is to be changed as minimal as possible. It is to be kept in mind that budget is a whole plan or framework upon which the business function of the financial year will be based and it is keeping many factors in mind. Therefore, if we make massive change in the budget, in that case it may have negative effect on the business (Scott and Davis,2015). The stakeholders are to be informed about the budget of the organization, so that they have a fair idea about the companys act and so that they can act accordingly. This will help them aligning with the budget and they will also have an idea about how much the company is willing to invest on what and act accordingly (Trishkina, 2014). The resources are to be divided under some categories according to their expenses. There are some resources upon when expenses are regular in nature and there are some expenses, which are not frequent (Van der Wagen and Goonetilleke, 2015) .There are also some expenses that happen in an organization, which occurs at by chance. These expenses are categorized and each category is then allotted with a budget and then this budget is divided amongst the expenses (Vincent et al, 2014). The budget built a frame work of how the company and its stake holders will function and this also gives a guideline of how far the company is willing to bend in terms of expenses and what are its limitation. Budgeting is a very important factor in terms of functioning of the company. Without the help of the budget, it will be extremely difficult for the company and its stakeholders to function. So the budget is to be given outmost respect and maintained strict as much as possible and if the rules are to be bend in that case it is to be seen whether it is good for the organization or not, so that there is no negative effect to the organization (Ward, 2016). References Altinay, L., Paraskevas, A. and Jang, S.S., 2015.Planning research in hospitality and tourism. Routledge. Armstrong, M., and Taylor, S. (2014).Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers. Berthelsen, R.M., Barkley, W.C., Oliver, P.M., McLymont, V. and Puckett, R., 2014. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Revised 2014 standards of professional performance for registered dietitian nutritionists in management of food and nutrition systems.Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,114(7), pp.1104-1112. Blay-Palmer, A. and Knezevic, I., 2015. 22. Building sustainable communities through alternative food systems.Handbook on the Globalisation of Agriculture, p.446. Buttigieg, S. C., Buttigieg, S. C., Gauci, D., Gauci, D., Dey, P., and Dey, P. (2016). Continuous quality improvement in a Maltese hospital using logical framework analysis.Journal of health organization and management,30(7), 1026-1046. Chia, A.,and Round, H. (2015). A Developmental Learning Framework for Business Report Writing: Guidance for Management Educators.Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy,45(7), 556-566. Cokins, G., 2017.Strategic business management: From planning to performance. John Wiley Sons. Dai, J., Jiang, W., Liu, G., Xu, J., Zhao, L. and Liu, A., 2014, June. Rating Aware Route Planning in Road Networks. InInternational Conference on Web-Age Information Management(pp. 223-235). Springer, Cham. Dewe, M., 2016.Planning public library buildings: Concepts and issues for the librarian. Routledge. Elsawah, S., Guillaume, J. H., Filatova, T., Rook, J., Jakeman, A. J. (2015). A methodology for eliciting, representing, and analysing stakeholder knowledge for decision making on complex socio-ecological systems: From cognitive maps to agent-based models.Journal of environmental management,151, 500-516. Gal, T., Stewart, T., and Hanne, T. (Eds.). (2013).Multicriteria decision making: advances in MCDM models, algorithms, theory, and applications(Vol. 21). Springer Science Business Media.. Haimes, Y. Y. (2015).Risk modeling, assessment, and management. John Wiley Sons. HakemZadeh, F., HakemZadeh, F., Baba, V. V., and Baba, V. V. (2016). Toward a theory of collaboration for evidence-based management.Management Decision,54(10), 2587-2616. Kline, R. B. (2015).Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications. Norton, S. B., and Schofield, K. A. (2017). Conceptual model diagrams as evidence scaffolds for environmental assessment and management.Freshwater Science,36(1), 231-239. Scott, W. R., and Davis, G. F. (2015).Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural and open systems perspectives. Routledge. Trishkina, O., 2014. Marketing plan for company X. Van der Wagen, L. and Goonetilleke, A., 2015.Hospitality Management, Strategy and Operations. Pearson Higher Education AU. Vincent, K., Dougill, A.J., Dixon, J., Stringer, L.C., Cull, T., Mkwambisi, D.D. and Chanika, D., 2014. Actual and potential weather and climate information needs for development planning in Malawi: Results of a Future Climate for Africa pilot case study.Future climate for Africa pilot case studies. Retrieved from https://cdkn. org/resource/climate-information-decision-making-malawi. Ward, J., 2016.Keeping the family business healthy: How to plan for continuing growth, profitability, and family leadership. Springer. Zurich, L. B. (2017). Service Operations and Management.

Multicultural Training Philosophy an Example by

Multicultural Training Philosophy by Expert Jayjay1 | 15 Dec 2016 The current face of American education has undergone a major facelift. Years ago, Martin Luther King had a dream that all men and women would be equal and all students would be equal. Our laws and progression of civil rights and immigration has changed the United States Public Education System. Racial inequality and color prejudice has affected the American education system through legislation that was meant to help students. Educational theories and classroom practices have taken new forms in order to conform and meet the educational needs of the global societies. Need essay sample on "Multicultural Training Philosophy" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The best custom essay writing company is EssayLab, just give us a try! Educators and teachers are being expected to share views and recognize values from different cultures, races, societies and ethnic groups. They are expected to move outside the system and custom of the dominant society and incorporate beliefs other than those they are accustomed with. Our laws and progression of Civil Rights and immigration has changed the United States public education system. The challenges that face our nations children relates to the civil right movements and immigration laws that have guided us to a direction of multicultural education. Persity and inclusion in the United States is very much apparent at schools and universities. However, though the school population is becomingly more perse, most of the schoolteachers and educators are white and female. Record shows that 87% of the teacher population is white (Banks, 2001). This is why adding multi-cultural education to the curriculum is so important. Schools are struggling to teach English to both African and Latino students because the first evident reason was that Latino students spoke Spanish at home. Multiculturalism was proposed to expand culture for American schoolchildren. Educators wanted students to respect racial and ethnic minority groups and they wanted the self-image of the minority children to be changed (Stotsky, 1999). In 2001, President George Bush signed into law his No Child left Behind Law, which consolidated the US Department of Educations bilingual and immigrant education programs. The plan focuses on teaching English to student as quickly and effectively as possible. Senators from Utah and Illinois Orrin Hatch, a republican and Richard Durbin, a democrat, proposed the DREAM Act in July 2003. Under the Senates proposed DREAM, which stands for Development, Relief and Education of Alien Minors Act, students who graduate from high school would be eligible for a green card. There are those who want to reform the way we educate illegal immigrants, saying that the total K-12 school expenditure for illegal immigrants costs the states enough to buy a computer for every junior high student nationwide. The tax dollars that it is costing Americans to pay for educating illegal immigrants is costing American students academically. Immigrant children have the right to an education, as do all children. The links between illiteracy and illegal immigration is astounding. Hispanic immigrants come to the United States without having the basic literacy skills needed. Teachers in Texas are finding that their classes are mostly English language learners. Bilingual assistants are there to translate to students and teacher regarding teaching information and notes; they are also there to translate during parent teacher conferences. The state of Texas requires that each local school district establish a language proficiency assessment committee to review the proficiency and achievement-level for each student whose primary language is not English. The committee classifies the student and recommends placement and help to benefit the student (Stewart, 1993). It is noticeable that one main agenda of the proposed multi-cultural education agenda is to unite the perse American population. The important goal is to help people achieve and acquire the much needed skills, confidence, and knowledge to function effectively in the pluralistic society (Gay, 2000). It should help students to be armed with respect and dignity, whatever his or her background, in facing a moral community that is striving for a common good. References Banks, J.A.B. (2001). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives, 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research and practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Stewart, David W (1993). Immigration and education: The crisis and the opportunities. New York, NY: Lexington Books. Stotsky, Sandra (1999). Losing our language. New York, NY: The Free Press.